The role of regional tax autonomy, firm size, and business groups in tax avoidanceevidence from Spain
- Aitor Garmendia-Lazcano 1
- Laura Baselga-Pascual 1
-
1
Universidad de Deusto
info
ISSN: 0210-2412
Year of publication: 2025
Volume: 54
Issue: 1
Pages: 25-36
Type: Article
More publications in: Revista española de financiación y contabilidad
Abstract
This paper investigates the influence of regional tax autonomy, firm size, and business group affiliation on corporate tax burden in a large sample of Spanish firms, including non-listed firms, from 2007 to 2016. Our findings reveal that firms located in tax-autonomous regions exhibit lower effective corporate tax rates (ETR), providing new empirical support for the horizontal tax competition theory. Additionally, we identify a positive relationship between firm size and corporate tax burden, aligning with the political cost theory. Furthermore, we find that group-affiliated firms face a higher ETR than independent firms, and that group affiliation attenuates the differences in the tax burden experienced by large and small firms.
Bibliographic References
- Adhikari, A., Derashid, C., & Zhang, H. (2006). Public policy, political connections, and effective tax rates: Longitudinal evidence from Malaysia. Journal of Accounting and Public Policy, 25(5), 574–595. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaccpubpol.2006.07.001
- Arellano, M., & Bover, O. (1995). Another look at the instrumental variable estimation of error-components models. Journal of Econometrics, 68(1), 29–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-4076(94)01642-D
- Badertscher, B. A., Katz, S. P., Rego, S. O., & Wilson, R. J. (2019). Conforming tax avoidance and capital market pressure. The Accounting Review, 94(6), 1–30. https://doi.org/10.2308/accr-52359
- Bao, D. H., & Romeo, G. C. (2013). Tax avoidance and corporations in the United States—The effective tax rate abnormality for the top five percent by corporate size. The Journal of Applied Business and Economics, 14(4), 88–100.
- Barbera, A., Merello, P., & Molina, R. (2020). Determinants of corporate effective tax rates: Evidence from the euro area. Academia Revista Latinoamericana de Administración, 33(3/4), 427–444. https://doi.org/10.1108/ARLA-12-2019-0238
- Baudot, L., Johnson, J. A., Roberts, A., & Roberts, R. W. (2020). Is corporate tax aggressiveness a reputation threat? Corporate accountability, corporate social responsibility, and corporate tax behavior. Journal of Business Ethics, 163(2), 197–215. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-019-04227-3
- Belz, T., Hagen, D. V., & Steffens, C. (2019). Taxes and firm size: Political cost or political power? Journal of Accounting Literature, 42(1), 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acclit.2018.12.001
- Besley, T. J., & Rosen, H. S. (1998). Vertical tax externalities in tax setting: Evidence from gasolina and cigarettes. (NBER working paper, No. 6.517). National Bureau of Economic Research.
- Beuselinck, C., & Deloof, M. (2014). Earnings management in business groups: Tax incentives or expropriation concealment? The International Journal of Accounting, 49(1), 27–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intacc.2014.01.008
- Blouin, J., & Robinson, L. A. (2020). Double counting accounting: How much profit of multi-national enterprises is really in tax havens? SSRN Electronic Journal. Available at SSRN 3491451. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3491451
- Blundell, R. W., & Bond, S. R. (1998). Initial conditions and moment restrictions in dynamic panel data models. Journal of Econometrics, 87(1), 115–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-4076(98)00009-8
- Bona‐Sánchez, C., Pérez‐Alemán, J., & Santana‐Martín, D. J. (2023). Media visibility and corporate social responsibility investment evidence in Spain. Business Ethics, the Environment & Responsibility, 32(1), 94–107. https://doi.org/10.1111/beer.12488
- Bona-Sánchez, C., Pérez-Alemán, J., & Santana, D. J. (2019). Political ties and corporate tax burden in Spain. Spanish Journal of Finance and Accounting/Revista Española de Financiación y Contabilidad, 49(1), 74–93. https://doi.org/10.1080/02102412.2019.1573049
- Brülhart, M., & Jametti, M. (2006). Vertical versus horizontal tax externalities: An empirical test. Journal of Public Economics, 90(10–11), 2027–2062. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2006.04.004
- Bucovetsky, S. (1991). Asymmetric tax competition. Journal of Urban Economics, 30(2), 167–181. https://doi.org/10.1016/0094-1190(91)90034-5
- Calvé, J. I., Labatut, G., & Molina, R. (2005). Variables económico-financieras que inciden sobre la presión fiscal soportada por las empresas de reducida dimensión: Efectos de la Reforma fiscal de 1995 en las empresas de la Comunidad Valenciana. Revista Española de Financiación y Contabilidad, 34(127), 875–897. https://doi.org/10.1080/02102412.2005.10779565
- Castillo-Murciego, Á., & López-Laborda, J. (2022). Which multinationals can escape high statutory tax rates? The profit-shifting strategy to reduce taxes. Applied Economics Letters, 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504851.2022.2140106
- Chen, S., Chen, X., Cheng, Q., & Shevlin, T. (2010). Are family firms more tax aggressive than non-family firms? Journal of Financial Economics, 95(1), 41–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfineco.2009.02.003
- Christensen, D. M., Kenchington, D. G., & Laux, R. C. (2022). How do most low ETR firms avoid paying taxes? Review of Accounting Studies, 27(2), 570–606. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11142-021-09614-8
- Da Costa, R. H., Tatiwa, R., & Kloeckner, R. (2015). Vertical tax competition in Brazil: Empirical evidence for ICMS and IPI in the period 1995–2009. EconomiA, 16(1), 111–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econ.2015.03.004
- Delgado, F. J., Fernández, E., & Martínez, A. (2014). Effective tax rates in corporate taxation: A quantile regression for the EU. Inzinerine Ekonomika-Engineering Economics, 25(5), 487–496. https://doi.org/10.5755/j01.ee.25.5.4531
- Delgado, F. J., Fernández-Rodríguez, E., & Martínez-Arias, A. (2018). Corporation effective tax rates and company size: Evidence from Germany. Economic Research-Ekonomska Istraživanja, 31(1), 2081–2099. https://doi.org/10.1080/1331677X.2018.1543056
- Derashid, C., & Zhang, H. (2003). Effective tax rates and the “industrial policy” hypothesis: Evidence from Malaysia. Journal of International Accounting, Auditing & Taxation, 12(1), 45–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1061-9518(03)00003-X
- Dewenter, K., Novaes, W., & Pettway, R. H. (2001). Visibility versus complexity in business groups: Evidence from Japanese Keiretsu. The Journal of Business, 74(1), 79–100. https://doi.org/10.1086/209664
- Dyreng, S. D., & Lindsey, B. P. (2009). Using financial accounting data to examine the effect of foreign operations located in tax havens and other countries on U.S. multinational firms’ tax rates. Journal of Accounting Research, 47(5), 1283–1316. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-679X.2009.00346.x
- Dyreng, S., Hanlon, M., & Maydew, E. (2008). Long-run corporate tax avoidance. The Accounting Review, 83(1), 61–82. https://doi.org/10.2308/accr.2008.83.1.61
- Faccio, M., & Lang, L. H. (2002). The ultimate ownership of Western European corporations. Journal of Financial Economics, 65(3), 365–395. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-405X(02)00146-0
- Fernández-Rodríguez, E. (2004). Los factores condicionantes de la presión fiscal empresarial española a partir de la información contable. Especial mención a las decisiones financieras. Spanish Journal of Finance and Accounting/Revista Española de Financiación y Contabilidad, 33 (120), 125–159. https://doi.org/10.1080/02102412.2004.10779516
- Fernández-Rodríguez, E., García-Fernández, R., & Martínez-Arias, A. (2019). Influence of ownership structure on the determinants of effective tax rates of Spanish companies. Sustainability, 11(5), 1441. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11051441
- Fox, W. F., Hill, B. C., & Murray, M. N. (2015). Vertical competition, horizontal competition, and mobile capital: An empirical investigation. Public Finance Review, 43(4), 431–457. https://doi.org/10.1177/1091142113515052
- Goodspeed, T. J. (2000). Tax structure in a federation. Journal of Public Economics, 75(3), 493–506. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0047-2727(99)00078-X
- Graham, J. R. (1996). Debt and the marginal tax rate. Journal of Financial Economics, 41(1), 41–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-405X(95)00857-B
- Graham, J. R., Hanlon, M., Shevlin, T. J., & Shroff, N. (2014). Incentives for tax planning and avoidance: Evidence from the field. The Accounting Review, 89(3), 991–1023. https://doi.org/10.2308/accr-50678
- Gramlich, J. D., Limpaphayom, P., & Rhee, S. G. (2004). Taxes, keiretsu affiliation, and income shifting. Journal of Accounting and Economics, 37(2), 203–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacceco.2003.10.001
- Granados, A. P., Montero, P. A., & Hierro, L. A. (2021). Determinantes de la presión fiscal de las empresas societarias españolas por el impuesto de sociedades durante la crisis económica (2008-2015): Determinants of the tax burden of the Spanish companies for the corporate income tax during the economic crisis (2008-2015). Revista de Contabilidad-Spanish Accounting Review, 24(2), 184–201.
- Granados, A. P., Montero, P. A., & Hierro, L. A. (2022). Do tourist companies support a greater direct tax burden? The case of Spain. Current Issues in Tourism, 25(4), 579–591. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2021.1892605
- Granovetter, M. (2005). Business groups and social organization. In N. J. Smelser & R. Swedburg (Eds.), The handbook of economic sociology (2nd ed., pp. 429–450). Princeton University Press.
- Guenther, D. A., Matsunaga, S., & Williams, B. (2013, August). Tax avoidance, tax aggressiveness, tax risk and firm risk. (Working paper). University of Oregon.
- Guillén, M. F. (2000). Business groups in emerging economies: A resource-based view. Academy of Management Journal, 43(3), 362–380. https://doi.org/10.2307/1556400
- Gupta, S., & Newberry, K. (1997). Determinants of the variability in corporate effective tax rates: Evidence from longitudinal data. Journal of Accounting and Public Policy, 16(1), 1–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-4254(96)00055-5
- Hanlon, M., & Heitzman, S. (2010). A review of tax research. Journal of Accounting and Economics, 50(2/3), 127–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacceco.2010.09.002
- Hanlon, M., & Slemrod, J. (2009). What does tax aggressiveness signal? Evidence from stock price reactions to news about tax shelter involvement. Journal of Public Economics, 93(1–2), 126–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2008.09.004
- Hansson, A., & Olofsdotter, A. (2005). Integration and tax competition: An empirical study of OECD Countries. working paper, No. 2005/04. Lund University.
- Harris, M. N., & Feeny, S. (2003). Habit persistence in effective tax rates. Applied Economics, 35(8), 951–958. https://doi.org/10.1080/0003684032000050577
- Hayashi, M., & Boadway, R. (2001). An empirical analysis of intergovernmental tax interaction: The case of business income taxes in Canada. The Canadian Journal of Economics/Revue Canadienne d’Economique, 34(2), 481–503. https://doi.org/10.1111/0008-4085.00085
- Heitzman, S., & Lester, R. (2021). Tax loss measurement. National Tax Journal, 74(4), 867–893. https://doi.org/10.1086/716849
- Hsu, W. H., & Liu, H. T. (2018). Tax avoidance and pyramidal layers. NTU Management Review, 28(1), 1–42. https://doi.org/10.12968/prma.2018.28.9.42
- Imbeau, L. M., Pétry, F., & Lamari, M. (2001). Left–right party ideology and government policies: A meta–analysis. European Journal of Political Research, 40(1), 1–29. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6765.00587
- Jaafar, A., & Thornton, J. (2015). Tax havens and effective tax rates: An analysis of private versus public European firms. The International Journal of Accounting, 50(4), 435–457. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intacc.2015.10.005
- James, G., Witten, D., Hastie, T., & Tibshirani, R. (Eds.). (2013). An introduction to statistical learning: With applications in R. Springer.
- Janssen, B. (2005). Corporate effective tax rates in the Netherlands. De Economist, 153(1), 47–66. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10645-004-7127-y
- Jensen, M. C., & Meckling, W. H. (1976). Theory of the firm: Managerial behavior, agency costs and ownership structure. Journal of Financial Economics, 3(4), 305–360. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-405X(76)90026-X
- Jung, K., Kim, B., & Kim, B. (2009). Tax motivated income shifting and Korean business groups (chaebol). Journal of Business Finance & Accounting, 36(5/6), 552–586. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-5957.2009.02141.x
- Kang, J. Y., & Kim, J. S. (2021). International diversification, tax avoidance, and Chaebol: Evidence from Korea. Journal of Korea Trade, 25(5), 74–92. https://doi.org/10.35611/jkt.2021.25.5.74
- Keen, M. (2008). Tax competition. In P. Macmillan (Ed.), The new Palgrave dictionary of economics (pp. 1–11). Palgrave Macmillan.
- Keen, M. J., & Kotsogiannis, C. (2002). Does federalism lead to excessively high taxes? The American Economic Review, 92(1), 363–370. https://doi.org/10.1257/000282802760015784
- Khanna, T., & Palepu, K. (1999). Policy shocks, market intermediaries, and corporate strategy: The evolution of business groups in Chile and India. Journal of Economics & Management Strategy, 8 (2), 271–310. https://doi.org/10.1162/105864099567668
- Khanna, T., & Yafeh, Y. (2007). Business groups in emerging markets: Paragons or parasites? Journal of Economic Literature, 45(2), 331–372. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.45.2.331
- Kim, H., Hoskisson, R. E., & Wan, W. P. (2004). Power dependence, diversification strategy, and performance in keiretsu member firms. Strategic Management Journal, 25(7), 613–636. https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.395
- Kovermann, J., & Wendt, M. (2019). Tax avoidance in family firms: Evidence from large private firms. Journal of Contemporary Accounting & Economics, 15(2), 145–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcae.2019.04.003
- Landry, S., Deslandes, M., & Fortin, A. (2013). Tax aggressiveness, corporate social responsibility, and ownership structure. Journal of Accounting, Ethics & Public Policy, 14(3), 611–645. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2304653
- Lanis, R., & Richardson, G. (2012). Corporate social responsibility and tax aggressiveness: An empirical analysis. Journal of Accounting and Public Policy, 31(1), 86–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaccpubpol.2011.10.006
- La Porta, R., Lopez de Silanes, F., Shleifer, A., & Vishny, R. W. (1999). Investor protection: Origins, consequences, and reform. (NBER working papers 7428). National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
- Locorotondo, R., Dewaelheyns, N., & Van Hulle, C. (2012). The consequences of business group affiliation: A review of the literature. Review of Business and Economic Literature, 57(1), 77–97.
- Manzon, G. B., & Plesko, G. A. (2002). The relation between financial and tax reporting measures of income. Tax Law Review, 55, 175–214. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.264112
- Martínez, J., Ibáñez, P. C., & Campillo, J. P. (2015). La presión fiscal en las cooperativas: una valoración por tamaños, comunidades y sectores para el período 2008-2011. REVESCO, Revista de Estudios Cooperativos, (119), 132–158. https://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=36741404006
- Mills, L., & Newberry, K. (2004). Do foreign multinationals’ tax incentives influence their US income and reporting debt policy? National Tax Journal, 57(1), 89–107. https://doi.org/10.17310/ntj.2004.1.05
- Molina, R. (2012). La presión fiscal en las cooperativas españolas durante el período 2003-2008. CIRIEC-España, revista de economía pública, social y cooperativa, (74), 39–58. https://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=17423124002
- Molina, R., & Barberá, A. (2017). Los determinantes de la presión fiscal empresarial: evidencia en las empresas de la zona euro durante el período 2004-2014. Harvard Deusto Business Research, 6(1), 69–82.
- Monterrey, J., Sánchez, A., & Fernández, E. (2010). Diferencias en agresividad fiscal entre empresas familiares y no familiares. Spanish Journal of Finance and Accounting / Revista Española de Financiación y Contabilidad, 39(145), 65–107. https://doi.org/10.1080/02102412.2010.10779679
- Morck, R., & Nakamura, M. (1999). Banks and corporate control in Japan. The Journal of Finance, 54(1), 319–339. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-1082.00106
- Morck, R., Wolfenzon, D., & Yeung, B. (2005). Corporate governance, economic entrenchment, and growth. Journal of Economic Literature, 43(3), 655–720. https://doi.org/10.1257/002205105774431252
- Morck, R., & Yeung, B. Y. (2004). Special issues relating to corporate governance and family control. Available at SSRN 625283.
- Moreno-Rojas, J., González-Rodríguez, M. R., & Martín-Samper, R. C. (2017). Determinants of the effective tax rate in the tourism sector. A dynamic panel data model. Tourism & Management Studies, 13(3), 31–38. https://doi.org/10.18089/tms.2017.13304
- OECD. (2023). Government at a glance 2023. (OECD Publishing). https://doi.org/10.1787/3d5c5d31-en
- Overesch, M., & Rincke, J. (2011). What drives corporate tax rates down? A reassessment of globalization, tax competition, and dynamic adjustment to shocks. The Scandinavian Journal of Economics, 113(3), 579–602. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9442.2011.01650.x
- Plesko, G. A. (2003). An evaluation of alternative measures of corporate tax rates. Journal of Accounting and Economics, 35(2), 201–226. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-4101(03)00019-3
- Porcano, T. M. (1986). Corporate tax rates: Progressive, proportional or regressive. The Journal of the American Taxation Association, 7(2), 17–31.
- Reed, R. (2006). Democrats, republicans, and taxes: Evidence that political parties matter. Journal of Public Economics, 90(4–5), 725–750. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2004.12.008
- Rego, S. O. (2003). Tax-avoidance activities of U.S. Multinational corporations. Contemporary Accounting Research, 20(4), 805–833. https://doi.org/10.1506/VANN-B7UB-GMFA-9E6W
- Richardson, G., & Lanis, R. (2007). Determinants of the variability in corporate effective tax rates and tax reform: Evidence from Australia. Journal of Accounting and Public Policy, 26(6), 689–704. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaccpubpol.2007.10.003
- Romero, E., Molina, R., & Labatut, G. (2009). La presión fiscal en las empresas españolas: un estudio de las diferencias entre comunidades autónomas y sus efectos sobre las empresas de reducida dimensión. Revista Internacional de la Pequeña y Mediana Empresa, 1(2), 78–96.
- Sánchez-Marín, G., Portillo-Navarro, M. J., Clavel, J. G., Memili, M. S., & Celine Barrédy, E. (2016). The influence of family involvement on tax aggressiveness of family firms. Journal of Family Business Management, 6(2), 143–168. https://doi.org/10.1108/JFBM-03-2015-0017
- Schaffer, M. E., & Turley, G. (2001). Effective versus statutory taxation: Measuring effective tax administration in transition economies. European bank for reconstruction and development working paper, 62.
- Siegfried, J. (1972). The relationship between economic structure and the effect of political influence: Empirical evidence from the federal corporation income tax program [Ph.D. dissertation]. University of Wisconsin.
- Spanish Senate. (2019). Administración e Instituciones autonómicas: composición de parlamentos y gobiernos. Retrieved March , 2019, from. http://www.senado.es/web/conocersenado/biblioteca/dossieresareastematicas/detalledossier/index.html?lang=en&id=DOSSIER_CCAA1&parte=CCAA1_PLANES
- Stamatopoulos, I., Hadjidema, S., & Eleftheriou, K. (2019). Explaining corporate effective tax rates: Evidence from Greece. Economic Analysis & Policy, 62, 236–254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eap.2019.03.004
- Su, W., & Tan, D. (2018). Business groups and tax havens. Journal of Business Ethics, 153(4), 1067–1081. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-018-3910-6
- Tobin, G., & Walsh, K. (2013). What makes a country a tax haven? An assessment of international standards shows why Ireland is not a tax haven. The Economic and Social Review, 44(3), 401–424.
- Transparency International. (2022). Online resource. https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2022
- UNDP. (2022). Human development report 2021-22. Uncertain times, unsettled lives: Shaping our future in a transforming world. https://hdr.undp.org/content/human-development-report-2021-22.
- Vandenbussche, H., Crabbé, K., & Janssen, B. (2005). Is there regional tax competition? Firm level evidence for Belgium. De Economist, 153(3), 257–276. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10645-005-1988-6
- Vandenbussche, H., & Tan, C. (2005, September 19). The taxation of multinationals: Firm level evidence for Belgium. LICOS discussion Paper, No. 160/2005.
- Watts, R. L., & Zimmerman, J. L. (1978). Towards a positive theory of the determination of accounting standards. The Accounting Review, 53(1), 112–134.
- Watts, R. L., & Zimmerman, J. L. (1986). Positive accounting theory. Prentice Hill.
- Wilson, J. D. (1986). A theory of interregional tax competition. Journal of Urban Economics, 19(3), 296–315. https://doi.org/10.1016/0094-1190(86)90045-8
- Wilson, J. D. (1991). Tax competition with interregional differences in factor endowments. Regional Science and Urban Economics, 21(3), 423–451. https://doi.org/10.1016/0166-0462(91)90066-V
- Wilson, J. D. (1999). Theories of tax competition. National Tax Journal, 52(2), 269–304. https://doi.org/10.1086/NTJ41789394
- Wilson, R. J. (2009). An examination of corporate tax shelter participants. The Accounting Review, 84(3), 969–999. https://doi.org/10.2308/accr.2009.84.3.969
- Windmeijer, F. (2005). A finite sample correction for the variance of linear efficient two-step GMM estimators. Journal of Econometrics, 126(1), 25–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconom.2004.02.005
- Zimmerman, J. L. (1983). Taxes and firm size. Journal of Accounting and Economics, 5, 119–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-4101(83)90008-3
- Zodrow, G. R., & Mieszkowski, P. (1986). Pigou, tiebout, property taxation, and the underprovision of local public goods. Journal of Urban Economics, 19(3), 356–370. https://doi.org/10.1016/0094-1190(86)90048-3